Heat of Combustion Essay Example for Free

Heat of Combustion Essay Mapua Institute of Technology School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry Physical Chemistry I Experiment No. 6 Heat of Combustion Alain John Cantaa, Jefunnie Matahumb, Marife Comprac, Nino Adrian Rodelasa, a b Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering, Mapua Institute of Technology, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Bachelor of Science in Biological Engineering and Chemistry, Mapua Institute of Technology, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering c Bachelor of Science in Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Mapua Institute of Technology, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Heat of combustion Calorimeter Aromaticity Relative energies Heat of formation Date submitted: March 02, 2013 ABSTRACT The heat of combustion, ? H, can be measured through a bomb calorimeter. It is the energy released as heat when a compound undergoes complete combustion with oxygen under standard conditions. The chemical reaction is typically a hydrocarbon reacting with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, water and heat. It may be expressed with the quantities: energy/mole of fuel (kJ/mol), energy/mass of fuel, energy/volume of fuel. The heat of combustion is conventionally measured with a bomb calorimeter. It may also be calculated as the difference between the heat of formation of the products and reactants. The experiment aimed to determine the heat of combustion of some hydrocarbons namely, benzoic acid, naphthalene, and sucrose and to be familiarized with calibration of bomb calorimeter. Parr 6200 Bomb Calorimeter, a device that measures heat of combustions of different compounds, and the Parr 6510 water handling system were used. The samples used were benzoic acid, naphthalene and sucrose. The results of the experiment showed that naphthalene has the highest heat of combustion followed by benzoic acid and sucrose, respectively. The analysis of the molecular structure of the samples found that increasing aromaticity of compounds yield to a higher enthalpy of combustion. Discussion of the relative energies of the bonds broken in combustion had contributed to the overall concept of the experiment. In general, the heat of combustion of a certain compound can be measured in a typical bomb calorimeter and aromaticity is directly proportional to the heat of combustion of a particular compound. . Introduction Combustion is the chemical term for a process known more commonly as burning. It is one of the earliest chemical changes noted by humans, due at least in part to the dramatic effects it has on materials. 1The mechanism by which combustion takes place is well understood and is more correctly defined as a form of oxidation. This oxidation occurs so rapidly that noticeable 1 Charles E. Smith heat and light are produced. In general, the term oxidation refers to any chemical reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen. For example, when iron is exposed to air, it combines with oxygen in the air. That form of oxidation is known as rust. Combustion differs from rust in that the oxidation occurs much more rapidly, giving off heat in the process. The first law of thermodynamics is the application of the conservation of energy principle to heat and thermodynamic process where the change in internal energy is equal to the difference in heat added and work done by the system. When a chemical reaction occurs in an open container most of the energy gained or lost is in the form of heat. Calorimetry is the study of the measure of heat of both physical and chemical reaction. In a constant-volume calorimeter, the heat measured, qv is simply the internal energy of the system for no expansion work is done at constant volume. A calorimeter is the device used for the process of calorimetry. 3 There are many kinds of calorimeters namely the bomb calorimeter, the calvet-type calorimeter, the isothermal calorimeter, the differential scanning calorimeter and the constant-pressure calorimter. Calorimeters can measure heat changes and as well as heat constants such as heat of formation and heat of combustion. Heat of combustion or Hc is the energy released when one mole of a compound is reacted with oxygen, forming carbon dioxide and water as end products. Theoretically, the heat of combustion can be calculated using the heat of formation of the products and reactants or using the bond enthalpies bonds formed and broken. One of the most widely used calorimeters today, is the bomb calorimeter. 4 A bomb calorimeter is a type of constant volume device which makes the system isolated from the surroundings. It is an excellent device in measuring heat of chemical processes including the heat of combustion. The bomb calorimeter is used to completely burn substances to produce water and CO2 in an excess of oxygen. The heat of combustion released is absorbed by the calorimeter vessel in which the bomb is immersed, and results in a temperature increase ? T. The temperature measuring device in the bomb calorimeter, measures the heat change in the water. The bomb calorimeter uses the following equation to measure heat changes. Q? ?t * e m [1] where Q is the energy involved, ? t is the change in temperature of the system, e is the energy equivalent of the calorimeter, and m is the mass of the sample. In this type, the heat measured for the sample burned at constant volume, qv is the change in internal energy of the substance from its initial to final states. 1The enthalpy change, (the heat of combustion for this process) is related to the internal energy, by the equation below. 2 3 Physical Chemistry 4th edition Atkins Physical Chemistry 8th edition 4 Principles of Chemical Engineering. 7th Edition Page 2 of 11 The enthalpy of combustion can be calculated from the temperature rise, which results when the combustion reaction occurs under adiabatic conditions in a calorimeter. It is important that the reaction in the calorimeter take place rapidly and completely. The objectives of the experiment were to setup and use a bomb calorimeter as well as to obtain the value of the heat of combustion of some hydrocarbons namely, benzoic acid, naphthalene, and sucrose using the bomb calorimeter. and electric heater and has a precision electronic thermometer. Temperatures are measured with a high precision electronic thermometer using a specially designed thermistor sensor sealed in a stainless steel probe which is fixed in the calorimeter cover. Measurements are taken with 0. 0001o resolution over a 20oC to 40oC working range, with all readings shown in Celsius. It has a semi-automatic system for charging the bomb with oxygen. Oxygen from a commercial cylinder is connected to a microprocessor controlled solenoid installed in the calorimeter. In filling the bomb, the filling hose connector slips onto the bomb inlet valve. The filling proceeds automatically at a controlled rate to a pre-set pressure. 5 2. Materials and Methods 2. 1 Equipments used The equipments used were Parr 6200 Bomb Calorimeter and Parr 6510 Water Handling System.

The Link Between Literacy and Recidivism Essay -- Literacy Essays

The website, literacy.kent.edu describes literacy as â€Å" being able to read and write at a level to be successful in today's world and also being proficient at math, knowing how to use technology, and knowing how to solve problems and make decisions.†(par. 1). So how do prisoners acquire these skills while they are incarnated away from the world? This is where literacy programs such as Literature-N-Living in Florida and Storybook Project come into play. Although these literacy programs seem minor to the world they are important to prison inmates, juvenile offenders and their community because studies show it can lead to reduced recidivism, positive attitude changes, and even enhance the prisoners own children's’ literacy. According to â€Å"Teaching Literacy in Order to Turn the Page on Recidivism† Emily Music stated, recidivism is â€Å"the tendency of a convicted criminal to relapse into a habit of criminal activity or behavior†(p. 723). What this means is that recidivism is the rate a criminal goes back to prison for committing a crime. Music also expressed that the key to reducing recidivism rates in the United States is decreasing illiteracy rates among juvenile delinquents(p. 724) Many studies since the 1990s state that the rate of recidivism goes down if there are options made available for inmates.Along with William Drakeford explaining in his study that the â€Å"Reading skills of the youth in corrections could improve given the opportunity to learn in a structure environment† ( p.143). A study in found inmates who did take this opportunity had a â€Å"59% lower recidivism rate than those who did not† (Walker par. 3).As long as prisons provide these literacy progr ams and if prisoners participate they have more than 59% less of a chance o... ...ybook Project.† Aid to Inmate Mothers. Web. 20 Feb. 2014 Music, Emily. "Teaching Literacy In Order To Turn The Page On Recidivism." Journal Of Law & Education 41.4 (2012): 723-730.OmniFile Full Text Mega (H.W. Wilson). Web. 4 Feb. 2014. TURVEY, Sarah, and Jenny HARTLEY. "What Books Can Do Behind Bars." Adults Learning 25.1 (2013): 30-31. Readers' Guide Full Text Mega (H.W. Wilson). Web. 3 Mar. 2014. Vacca, James S. "Educated Prisoners Are Less Likely To Return To Prison." Journal Of Correctional Education 55.4 (2004): 297-305. Education Full Text (H.W. Wilson). Web. 3 Feb. 2014 Walker, Karen, and Inc. (EPI) Education Partnerships. "High School Education In Correctional Facilities. Research Brief." Education Partnerships, Inc (2006): ERIC. Web. 1 Mar. 2014. Willoughby, Mariano. â€Å"Books behind Bars.† Los Angeles Times 30 Jan 2000: B2. ProQuest. Web. 5 Feb. 2014.

Anti-Globalization different

â€Å"Globalization† means different things to many people.   Some think of it positively, while others don’t.   Some view it with hope and confidence, others with fear, sometimes with hostility.Globalization, according to the definition of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), is a historical process, the result of human innovation and technological process.   It refers to the increasing integration of economies around the world, particularly trade and financial flows.The term sometimes also refers to the movement of people (labor) and knowledge (technology) across international borders† (IMF Staff, 2002).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A more simplistic definition of globalization refers to it as the â€Å"process of increasing the connectivity and interdependence of the world's markets and businesses† (Investor Words, 2007).   Such a process has sped up dramatically in the last two decades as technological advances make it easier for people to travel, communicate, and do business globally.Globalization is not entirely a new concept.   Analysts argued that the world economy became global as early as during the height of the rivalry between Spain and Portugal for world supremacy in the 15th Century.   Commerce and financial services are just far more developed and deeply entrenched now than they were at that time because of the availability of modern electronic communication.Moreover, commerce and trade among countries have been simplified with the establishment in 1995 of the World Trade Organization, a powerful international body composed of 150 countries, mandated to mediate trade disputes among member nations.While the WTO is relatively young, its trading system is over half a century old because its predecessor was the General Agreement on Tariff and Tax (GATT) which was founded in 1948.   The old GATT evolved through several rounds of negotiation until it was renamed into the present WTO with expanded powers and respons ibilities that now cover trade in services and traded inventions, creations, and designs – collectively known as intellectual property.Officials of   IMF, World Bank and WTO have high hopes for globalization to improve the impoverished lives of people across the globe, particularly those from Africa.  They take credit for the improvement of Third World economies, including that of India, in recent years.   Developed countries such as the United States, EU, Japan, and Canada have bonded together to collectively endorse trade globalization through the WTO as a means to liberalize trade   (IMF Staff, 2000).Unfortunately not everyone is happy with globalization, particularly developing countries.   Some view the WTO with distrust and have rejected it altogether.   Others with suspicion and misgiving, but joined it nevertheless as a necessary evil.   They feel globalization is the handiwork of multinational companies out to dictate their terms to the hapless Third Wo rld.In general, those who oppose globalization as institutionalized by the WTO, World Bank, and other similar institutions, believe that it undermines the sovereign will of poor and developing countries in favor of multinational corporations from developed countries. They claim that corporations are given too much privilege to move freely across borders, extracting desired natural resources from poor countries and claiming them as their â€Å"intellectual property.†For example, a multinational company could secure a certain plant or organism with medicinal value endemic to a particular country and claim to own it under the rules of intellectual property.Because of the stringent, or rather lopsided, rules on intellectual property rights by the WTO in favor of multinational companies, countries are becoming more and more subservient to multinational pharmaceutical companies for the treatment of dreaded diseases like AIDs.Despite the availability of cheaper generic drugs, many c ountries in Africa stricken with the AIDS pandemic are unable to secure them â€Å"because countries must jump through multiple hoops to prove they are truly in need, unable to afford patented drugs and incapable of producing the medicines domestically. Meanwhile, there is no guarantee that there will be a sufficient supply of drugs for them to buy, since the deal also puts up hurdles for countries wanting to export† (Klein, 2001).Poor agricultural countries are likewise at the losing end of the bargain in so far as globalization is concerned.   Aside from their access to cheap agricultural inputs, including mechanized equipment, developed countries provide heavy subsidies not just in terms in farm inputs but also in terms export subsidies that make their agricultural products more attractive on the international market.Farm products such as vegetables, beef, and poultry are practically being dumped in poorer countries at prices that cause declines in the agricultural secto r of many developing nations.â€Å"The current inequities of the global trading system are being perpetuated rather than resolved under the WTO, given the unequal balance of power between member countries, according to Jean Ziegler, UN Special rapporteur on the Right to Food† (Wikipedia, 2007).   Such inequality is evident in the refusal of the United States to sign and honor the Tokyo Protocol, which compels countries to reduce the use of fossil fuel to reduce global warming, and still get away with it.Using their rights as WTO members and drawing support from the academe and non-government organizations, insider critics of the International Property Rights have openly criticized trade liberation as a bad policy that â€Å"move money from people in developing countries† (Intellectual Property Rights, Wikipedia).  Ã‚   They have demonstrated their opposition to many WTO policies in various fora, including mass rallies and demonstrations during important WTO meeting s.The first international anti-globalization protest was organized simultaneously in many cities around the world on June 18, 1999.   The movement was called the Carnival Against Capitalism, or J18 for short.  Ã‚   The day was marked by organizers as an international of protest to coincide with the 25th G8 Summit in Koln, Germany.   The protest in Eugene, Oregon turned into a riot when rallyists drove the police out of a small park.The second major mobilization of the anti-globalization movement was held on November 30, 1999, and was known as N30.   It is by far the most unsettling protest action against globalization, with protesters blocking delegates’ entrance to the WTO meetings in Seattle, USA.The protesters and Seattle riot police clashed in the streets after police fired tear gas at demonstrators who blocked the streets and refused to disperse. Over 600 protesters were arrested and thousands were injured.The protest movement was inextricably anti-globalization and anti-multinational corporation (MNC), but was unclear over the alternatives and new directions it wished to offer.   Nevertheless, the movement,   including the less eventful A16 Movement in Washington D.C., cannot be ignored as it spelled out in no uncertain terms the widespread anguish about the direction that globalization has taken and a sense of loss of democratic control by developing countries over their options.The protest also demonstrated lack of faith in the legitimacy of international institutions to objectively mediate trade disputes among nations because of a perceived notion that rules are loaded in favor developed countries.The protest movement debunks First World perception that it has the answers to problems being encountered by their Third World neighbors over issues of trade, health, food supply, poverty, environment, etc.  Ã‚   It does not, especially given our global history of abuse by wealthy nations to amass wealth and power at the expenses of poor er nations.BIBLIOGRAPHYBarnet, Richard J. & Ronald E. Muller. 1974. Global Reach: The Power of the Multinational Corporations. New York: Simon and Schuster.Berry, Jeffrey M. 1999. The New Liberalism: The Rising Power of Citizen Groups.Washington: The Brookings Institution.Gill, Stephen. 2000. Towards a Postmodern Prince? The Battle in Seattle as a Moment in the New Politics of Globalization. Millennium, 29(1): 131-40.IMF Staff. 2000.   Globalization:   Threat or Opportunity?Investor Words. 2007.   Globalization.Kanbur, Ravi. 2001. Economic Policy, Distribution and Poverty: The Nature of Disagreements. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University.Keohane, Robert. O and Joseph S. Nye. 1977 Power and Interdependence: WorldPolitics in Transition. Boston: Little Brown.Klein, Naomi. 2001. No Logo. New York: Picador.Lichbach, Mark I and Paul Almeida. 2001 â€Å"Global Order and Local Resistance: TheNeoliberal Institutional Trilemma and the Battle of Seattle.† Working Paper: Universityof C alifornia, Riverside, February 26.   

The Unattainable Standards of the Fashion World - 1145 Words

Most people think of the fashion industry as a materialistic world of extravagant, overpriced, un-wearable clothing. Where anorexic, and yet extremely beautiful women use their looks to sell you a product that they themselves probably don’t even like. They think of an industry that sets the most unattainable standards and lowers the self-esteem of young women to zero. They think of it as a world where everyone is judged and no one will ever be pleased†¦and in the end none of it even matters because they’re all just clothes, but I do not. You may be asking yourself, â€Å"Why is fashion important?†. Clothes are not just clothes. They aren’t just what you wear. Clothes are personal and intimate. The clothes you wear send a public message to others about the way you see yourself (regardless of whether or not you want them to). It’s really all about branding. From the minute you take the hanger off the rack, you are creating an image. Clothes can even transform you, that shirt you just â€Å"threw on† this morning can give you an enormous boost of confidence. How powerful is it that a piece of fabric can make you look and feel differently. iThere are many in the industry that truly possess great personal style and have major influence in the fashion world. From the red carpets to street style, these ladies can do no wrong. One major movie starlet, Jennifer Lawrence, has become quite the fashionista. What she’ll wear next, there’s no way to tell, but it’ll most definitely be Dior. JShow MoreRelatedTimeline of American Beauty Essay738 Words   |  3 PagesNot long ago, a woman’s success was measured by the success of her husband and her domestic prowess. Today, a woman is presumed successful if she can emulate the standards of beauty portrayed in the media. Unfortunately, this subliminally enforced standard is unattainable to some women, regardless of the quality of their character. 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